Archaeology: Unveiling the Mysteries of the Past
1. Introduction to Archaeology
There are a great many reasons why we should want to study the past. Knowledge of history is, in general, a good idea; it makes for a broader and more tolerant outlook on our fellow human beings, and rather than being a series of more or less entertaining stories, it is a blueprint for the conditions and problems of our own times. It is essential, however, to get a balanced view, and conventional history, being based on written records, tends to be the history of the victors and the disposers. By studying the lives of all kinds of people in the past, particularly those without a written history, we can redress the balance and come to some understanding of the human condition as a whole. Archaeology, as the only way of studying prehistory, is fundamental to this process.
Very often, we think of the past in terms of written history. And indeed, this is a reasonable view, as history, after all, is a written record of the past. However, not all of the past has been written down, and a great deal of the human story has left no written record. Prehistory is the vast period of time before the development of writing, and although we often assume that the story of simple societies is one of progress, in many cases, these societies have changed little for thousands of years, and modern descendants have little knowledge of the history of these people. In the search for knowledge of the unwritten past, it is essential to employ other kinds of sources than written records and to make use of a variety of techniques drawn from other disciplines. This is the task of the archaeologist who is not, as is popularly supposed, someone who studies dinosaurs, but is a person who studies the human past using material remains.
2. Methods and Techniques in Archaeological Research
Aerial remote sensing such as air photos and satellite imagery can cover large areas of land in a short time and at a low cost. High-resolution images can also provide detailed maps of the landscape which can often reveal buried structures and features without the need for a shovel.
Many archaeologists are turning to a more cost-effective and less destructive means of excavation through the use of modern remote sensing techniques. These methods can be done by ground or through aerial means, and there are a variety of methods available of differing cost, resolution, and data gathered. Ground-based remote sensing is often achieved with instruments such as a proton magnetometer, a ground penetrating radar, and resistivity meters. Magnetometry and ground penetrating radar both gather information on what lies underneath the surface through the use of energy pulses of differing types, and the information is consolidated into a map of the area showing anomalies and structures – everything from brick walls to pits and ditches. This method does not actually provide a physical image of the subterranean feature, so it is often used in conjunction with resistivity as a means of data confirmation. Resistivity measures how much earth impedes electrical resistance, and the resulting data can also be consolidated into a map showing subterranean features. All of these ground-based remote sensing techniques provide a way to locate what is underneath the surface before any actual excavation takes place.
Excavation is often the most talked about aspect of archaeology. It is the means by which the material evidence is removed from its primary context and stored in a systematic fashion. Unfortunately, excavation is a destructive process, as once an artifact has been removed from its primary context there is no longer a chance to examine where and how it was placed. Because of this, excavation is conducted with special care, often with the use of such methods as a total station which provides the exact coordinates and a 3D image of an artifact, and more recently with the advent of a new process called total data retrieval.
Methods and theory are the essence of archaeological studies, in that they serve to uncover the material record of the past and provide understanding to that end. As stated by David L. Clarke, “Archaeological method and theory are the ways in which an archaeologist approaches a research question… they are means to the end.” The methods and types of evidence an archaeologist can draw on are the building blocks to historical interpretation, thus it is important for one to use the best means possible to achieve an understanding of the past.
3. Major Discoveries in Archaeology
In the field of experimental or ethno-archaeology, Lewis Binford, a leading figure in processual archaeology, is renowned for his work on “On the Method of Determining Density of Scattered Debris,” essentially an experiment carried out to test the rate of stone tool deposition in a specific environment in an effort to aid the development of field sampling techniques in archaeology. Given the frequently destructive and non-renewable nature of the excavation process, experimental techniques such as this designed to generate new data without excavation are invaluable to the discipline.
One of the major drawbacks of traditional archaeology and manual excavation techniques is the effort required in recording and safely storing the large quantities of data gathered from an often permanent destruction layer. In the 1960s, Bruce Trigger made a notable effort in improving the potential of historical reconstruction through the development of both descriptive and quantitative methods for the ordering of archaeological data. This movement has received impetus with the advancement of computer and information sciences and has enabled a variety of techniques to aid the archaeologist in recording vast amounts of data at minimal cost to both time and excavation budget.
4. Interpreting the Past: Analyzing Artifacts and Sites
The case studies presented in this book have been chosen precisely because the interpretation of the archaeological evidence was and often still is a factor in a popular tradition or debate. The popular tradition ranged from stories of a gold-laden empire in Amazonia that was inspired by the myriad Amazonian and other native Indian societies with their variations in social complexity and hierarchy; to an account of the medieval wars and crusades that were inspired by the history of Europe and the Near East in the medieval period. Often these popular historical misconceptions lead to nationalism and have fueled social conflict and have an impact on the present day. There is very little archaeological evidence to support the idea of a coming together of Western and Eastern civilization through the fighting of wars in the Eastern Mediterranean. This scenario has long suffered from a search for evidence often led by written sources and beliefs.
Archaeological data do not derive from popular belief or common sense. This has been stated previously in this chapter and is deserving of further consideration. It is very difficult, if not impossible, to apply a scientific methodology to the study of an artifact or inscription when these are embedded in a popular and/or religious tradition. Failure to do this leads to accusations of bringing outside ideas to the evidence or criticism for applying supposedly higher standards of proof to one tradition than to another.
5. The Future of Archaeology: Preservation and Ethics
In order to preserve the past for the future, archaeologists must entertain the idea of knowledge in the present being used for the benefit of the past. The global nature of modern archaeology allows it to act in many ways as a tool of repatriation for a multitude of cultures. This can mean many things but is largely applied to the repatriation of artifacts to their nation of origin and aiding oppressed cultures in creating a usable past that forms the basis for cultural identity. While repatriation and the reformation of identity for oppressed cultures can be very subjective issues, there is no debate over the preservation of the past in regions of the world currently undergoing political strife. Many modern archaeological organizations such as UNESCO or the recently formed US Committee of the Blue Shield are dedicated to preserving cultural heritage in times of conflict around the world. This type of preservation is a high-risk, selfless act which holds humanity in a global context above the interests of specific nations or cultures.
Some of the most pressing issues in the modern world deal with the preservation of cultural heritage and the ethical treatment of oppressed and powerless minority groups. Archaeology has not escaped these issues and, in fact, has taken them on with a fervor that has not been displayed on such a scale in any other discipline. What are the factors that have caused this drive in archaeology to unearth the past with an eye on the future? Two primary concerns are the intellectual need to objectively study the past and the practical need to do so in order to educate the public. Gathering knowledge of the past is one thing; deciding what to do with that knowledge is another. The past is rife with examples of the powerful suppressing knowledge for their own means. A great example of this is the burning of the Library at Alexandria at the hand of Julius Caesar. The library, which contained works that could have significantly added to the modern understanding of history, was destroyed with the idea that it held knowledge that was against the state.
