The Chachapoya Indians: An Ancient Civilization of Peru
1. Introduction to the Chachapoya Indians
The Chachapoyas, known to the world as the People of the Clouds, were a tribal group of people who resided in the Andean cloud forests of the Amazonas region of present-day Peru. They were a largely forgotten people until the historian W. B. Dixon unearthed them in 1843. Much of what we now know of the ancient people has been discovered in the last 20 years as modern archaeologists explore the less accessible regions of the Andes and cloud forests. Known for their warriors and fierce independence, the Chachapoyas managed to keep their culture and society relatively intact and aloof from the better-known Incan Empire. They occupied an area of the north Amazon and the north Andes, which are referred to as the forests or the cloud forests or the high jungle area. It was said that they were very successful in keeping out the Inca as no ruins found in Romans were uncovered before, and the Chachapoyas had no written language. It is only in the last one hundred years that, through the efforts of archaeological research, exploration of the area, and the gathering and recording of oral traditions, that the history of the Chachapoya has begun to be known. Although the Inca called these people “cloud people,” partly because of the cloud forests where they were living and partly because they always seemed to evade capture, because they were never conquered by the Inca nor had to submit to Inca rule. The Spanish also had very little to do with them as they had difficulties in conquering the forest region. This history of isolation has made the Chachapoya one of the least known cultures in the Andes-Amazonia zone.
2. Culture and Lifestyle of the Chachapoya
The main factor contributing to their success was their knowledge in agriculture. They practiced a slash and burn method to clear patches of land in the mountains for use as farm fields. They created stone-lined terraces which acted as retaining walls that leveled the ground. The terraces also reduced erosion and allowed the Chachapoya to plant crops on the steep mountain sides which were commonly found in their region. Their principal crop was the potato. This was supplemented with other tubers such as oca, ulluco, and mashwa. Maize was also grown among many vegetables and fruits. Cotton was grown as a cash crop to exchange with other cultures. They also domesticated many animals including the llama and alpaca for wool, meat, and dung for fuel. Dogs were also raised for consumption in ritual feasts and ceremonies. Unfortunately, the Spanish conquest of Peru brought diseases which caused the native llama population to all but become extinct. This led to the importation of sheep whose wool was of a lesser quality. At the same time, the Inca displaced the Chachapoya and claimed many of their llama farming lands.
The Chachapoya were highly developed people. Their culture was simple but effective, and it allowed them to live in the highlands of the Andes. The climate there is very hostile and the land is rugged. The Chachapoya relied on their ingenuity and employed many different methods to survive in this harsh environment. They were successful in settling there and managing to thrive for in live in peace for a period of over 2000 years.
3. Architecture and Engineering Marvels of the Chachapoya
The construction of the Chachapoya structures was an architectural marvel considering they were built over six centuries. Buildings were constructed with polished stone blocks that fit together perfectly, and these structures were built on hilltops that were flattened through the use of terraces. The structures had thatched roofs that were supported by four walls; interior spaces were often divided by other walls and also had windows. The walls of the buildings were slanted inwards and then back out at the top, an architectural feature unique to the Chachapoya and one that gave buildings more stability. Around the walls of buildings there are also a significant amount of friezes that have been found which often depict the ‘eye of the jaguar’. Buildings were clustered together and likely had other more functional structures among them, such as food storage buildings. Buildings in Chachapoya settlements were also built using some of the natural caves that occur frequently in the highland areas of the Chachapoya, showing understanding of the geography and making use of it in their building. Large platform-like mausoleums were built in cliff faces and filled with sarcophagi. The sarcophagi were made of clay and up to two meters in height. These structures were richly decorated and were buried with many valuable and often precious items. An example of this is the mausoleum of Revash, which was possibly a ceremonial or elite building. In summary, the Chachapoya are a unique and interesting culture with many aspects that have yet to be understood. Their lack of writing has meant that we know very little of their history and their culture must be reconstructed with disparate secondary sources or those left behind in their archaeological record. Their cloud-forest environment has meant that many of these sites, both burial and settlement, are still relatively untouched and there is vast potential for new discoveries as well as better understandings of those sites that have already been uncovered. Due to the lack of tourism and infrastructure in the areas where the Chachapoya lived, little has been done in the way of conservation or restoration of these sites, so it is imperative that the Peruvian government take the necessary steps to do this and allow for a better understanding of Peru’s past and the potential tourist attractions from a newly revived cloud-forest civilization.
4. Art and Religion in Chachapoya Society
The most significant discovery in the art of the Chachapoya culture can be found in a rock shelter of a burial site that dates around 1350 A.D located in Cresta Solor. Archaeologist Federico Kauffmann Doig, who discovered the site, describes it as having “recumbent pack mummies on a sloping surface near the rear of the shelter. A few bundles are in the usual seated position. The body is either seated or reclining, and the mummy fiber is poorly preserved. At the right is a figure of a man wearing a split cape, his left hand upraised. At the left rear are two figures, one standing, the other seated and holding a cup.” The site is significant because it houses many burial sites, including both commoners and elites, and collected a large body of ceramic works. Kauffmann’s dating of the site provides valuable information in identifying the variety of ceramic styles.
One form of ceremonial architecture of the Chachapoya culture is the Gran Pajaten. Under the reign of Inca Pachacuti, it was the site of a key defense against the Inca in 1470 A.D. Bartolo Gavira describes the ruins as a “platform supporting 3 circular buildings and many roofed cellars” (1999). Between the variety of forms of architecture of the Chachapoya, we can see that they focused on circular and square-shaped structures. Some of the roofed cellars have hollowed spaces in the form of a human mandible and could have been used for Aribalo, ceremonial jars containing liquid.
Chachapoya culture was rich in expression. Aside from their detailed ceramic work, the Chachapoya are known for their mummies. The Chachapoya would construct sarcophagi or wooden slabs elevated off the ground and decorate them with a figured bundle or statue. It has been discovered that only a few sarcophagi are buried today due to grave robbers throughout history looking for precious goods.
5. Legacy and Influence of the Chachapoya Indians
Chachapoya cultural elements survived the conquest; the language continued to be spoken in some areas long after the Spanish arrival, and many cultural practices are still in evidence today. After a period of mixing with non-Indian elements, many Chachapoyas people are still conscious of their cultural identity. There thus seems to have been an unbroken continuity of Chachapoya population and traditional cultural forms and knowledge over the long-term, which is evidence of a successful adaptation to their environment. This is a rare demographic and cultural continuity in the Andes in general and in Peru in particular given the extent of disruptive social change that affected much of the region. In the face of numerous migrations and changes in ethno-linguistic groupings in the area, there is an unbroken chain of knowledge linking the different cultural phases throughout the development of Chachapoyas culture and a direct link between traditional knowledge and modern practices in Chachapoyas agriculture, health and ritual.
The Chachapoyas appear to have had little impact on other Andean cultures in terms of large-scale political or extensive economic influence. But the fact they managed to maintain their distinct identity into the late 15th century suggests that rather than being isolated from their more powerful neighbors, they were actually quite successful in their interactions with them, avoiding conquest through negotiation and marriage alliances. By the late 15th century, however, Inca expansion was threatening even these methods. The ability of the Chachapoyas to maintain their identity in the face of Inca and other influences is testament to the strength of their culture.
